While the TD controls only generalized labels to items that matched on shape (a category-defining cue), children with ASD frequently generalized to items that matched depicted objects on shape or color (a category-irrelevant cue). In Hartley and Allen ( 2014a), children with and without ASD learned the names of unfamiliar objects depicted in photographs and were required to sort items according to whether or not they were also referents of the newly-learned names. Other research shows that when children with ASD generalize names from pictures, they often do so based on atypical cues. This finding suggests that different types of pictures may promote or inhibit understanding. However, Hartley and Allen ( 2015a) found that a similar population of children with ASD extended labels to symbolized referents approximately twice as often in color picture trials relative to non-color picture trials (see also Hartley and Allen, 2015b for the facilitative role of iconicity for pictorial comprehension). For instance, Preissler ( 2008) showed that minimally-verbal children with ASD and cognitive impairment who use picture based systems to communicate associatively mapped words onto black-and-white pictures themselves and failed to extend labels to depicted referents, unlike TD children (see Preissler and Carey, 2004).
On a fundamental level, many children with ASD have been shown to have a different route of pictorial understanding than typically developing (TD) peers. Prior to addressing learning via electronic media, it is important to ascertain the extent to which children with ASD understand the symbolic role of pictures, and how they might learn from them. These areas of enquiry are, however, rapidly emerging. Similarly, there is little guidance as to how the features of electronic apps can be maximized to specifically facilitate learning in this population.
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While there are countless software applications (“apps”) designed to support language development and communication using digital pictures, little research has investigated the ability of children with ASD to comprehend and learn from symbolic information presented via tablet technology. However, the emergence of the Apple iPad in 2010 (and similar tablet hardware) has elicited a surge toward technology-mediated education and interventions, which may benefit children with ASD due to the device's portability, easy to use touch screen interface, and ability to emit multimodal output (Lofland, 2016). In educational and clinical settings, picture-based strategies such as the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS Bondy and Frost, 1994) are the most popular due to their low demands, focus on visual spatial processing (a relative strength in ASD Mottron et al., 1999), and proven capacity to facilitate communication in minimally-verbal children (Flippin et al., 2010).
These linguistic difficulties can have a devastating impact on children's capacity to communicate, but special educators have developed numerous interventions that enable communication without expressive language. Approximately 80% of children with ASD aged 5 years and younger who enter special education are non-verbal (Bondy and Frost, 1994), and 30% are minimally-verbal at 9-years (Anderson et al., 2007). Severe language impairments are a common characteristic of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD DSM-V: American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
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